1. Socrates – “No evil can happen”
Speaker
Socrates was a philosopher whose teachings greatly influenced Western philosophy. Plato was his student. Socrates was somewhat respected for his wit, humour and articulation but was disliked for his arrogance. He passionately believed in the power of rhetoric and taught in public places.
Context
399 BC – ancient Athens was the intellectual centre of Greece, and one of the world’s first democracies. Intellectuals were seen to weaken society by undermining traditional values and beliefs, and as Athens was strictly religious, those who ignored state religious codes were seen to challenge the legitimacy of the state. Socrates was tried for inquiring into things below the earth and in the sky, making the weaker argument defeat the stronger and teaching others for a fee.
What speech is about
	Aims to justify his actions as fundamental rights, and his role as a teacher of philosophy
	Aims to present himself in a heroic and virtuous light
	Aiming to convince his audience to agree with him. He does not repent or change his mind – antagonises with his audience. He accepts his death with dignity and integrity.
	Challenge of personal integrity, which is more important than the state, and more important than wealth.
	Themes: rights of the individual, divine justice, moral integrity of the individual
Techniques
Religious association
	“I shall obey God”
	“So God bids”
	“Attached by God to the state”
Effect: presents him as he sees himself – as an instrument of God. It reveals him as a deeply religious man in an age of conventional religion and proclaims his position as a moral leader. However, it drew an adverse reaction from the audience, who found him arrogant. The gods are seen as protectors of the state – Socrates is pious and concerned to promote piety and integrity.
Imagery
	“Reaping the largest possible harvest of wealth”
	“Gadfly to a big generous horse”
	“Now I go to pay the debt of death”
Effect: allows him to relate to his audience more. Metaphors allow him to explain the meaning of his words in more simple terms. The gadfly quote compares his function of provoking and challenging the state and its leaders to something constantly bothering a slow, cumbersome animal, and draws attention to the fact that he is using metaphorical language, and also adds a touch of humour to his speech.
Binary opposition
	“Life or death”
	“The right thing or the wrong”
	A good man or a bad”
	“Virtue springs not from possessions, but from virtue springs possessions”
Effect: creates a dramatic opening and begins a series of negative and positive connotations throughout the speech. It also outlines his main message that “no evil can happen to a good man” and sets him up as a moral leader with uncompromising dignity and authority.
Inclusive language
	“Men of Athens, I honour and love you”
	“O my friends”
	“O Athenians”
Effect: the appeal to men is a feature of Athenian oratory. The formal tone of these addresses is appealing to the audience, and gives the address a degree of warmth and unity. They show Socrates attempting to connect with his hostile audience.
Reception
As is shown by Plato, who recorded Socrates’ speech in The Apology, Socrates’ audience were very hostile to his message – as he pronounces his lack of fear and his refusal to back down, “uproar ensues” in the court. Their hostility is also shown by the fact that he was sentenced to death. However, today Socrates is a highly respected and influential philosopher, and a modern audience values his speech for Socrates’ intellect, dignity and articulation, as well as the speech's universal themes of the rights of the individual and moral integrity. Socrates speech can be valued more by a modern audience due to their differing political contexts and values - in Athens, intellectuals were seen to weaken society, but today, Socrates is known as one of the founding figures of modern philosophy.