Nationalism NATIONALISM was the most powerful movement in Europe in the 19th century. In Italy and Germany, Nationalism proved to be a unifying force in the spirit of national identity, culture, tradition. Elements of Nationalism: 1Land or Territory 2People 3Government 4Institutions Johanngottfried von Harder in Germany defined Nationalism in terms of PEOPLE'S LANGUAGE, LITERATURE, HISTORY, which provide a sense of UNITY and IDENTITY. German Unification was achieved in 1871. In Italy, Nationalism assumed the tone of liberal/radical reaction against Austria. After 1815, with G. Mazzini and G. Garibaldi, Italian Nationalism became a struggle of the Italian people again the tyranny of Austria. The ultimate dream of Italian leaders was the territorial unification of the peninsula free from foreign intervention and intrusion. The Carbonari = charcoal burners = (Mazzini) and the Red Shirts (Garibaldi) carried the program of Italian Unification. Italian Unification was achieved in 1870. Italy Unification Italy After 1848 The Roman Republic (1848-1849) G. Mazzini, G. Garibaldi, Camillo Count Benso di Cavour, King Victor Emmanuel II, Giovane Italia and Carbonari 1870: Occupation of Rome and the Roman Question 1870 – 1871: Franco Prussian War and the German State Papal Encyclical Quanta Cura and the Syllabus or Errors 1870 Vatican Council I and the Declaration of Papal Infallibility (Doctrine of the Church and Morals) Dual Monarchy: Austria and Hungary (1867). Ausgleich (Compromise) – Emperor Francis Joseph (r. 1848 – 1916) Christian Socialism Social Democracy Otto Von Bismarck Prussia's representative to the diet of the German Confederation of State = 1851 Prussia Ambassador to Russia = 1859 Prussia Ambassador to France = 1862 German Unification Grand Plan and Small Plan Schleswig – Holstein Affairs 1Prussia – Austria versus Denmark = 1864 2Prussia versus Austria = 1866 3Franco – Prussia War = 1870 – 1871 4Defeat of France and Napoleon III: Loss of Alsace and Lorraine and 5 billion gold francs ($1 billion). The Declaration of German Unification: In the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles and before an Assembly of German Princes, King William I or Prussia was proclaimed German emperor and Bismarck chancellor. Romanticism During the 19th century Romanticism emerged as a DYNAMIC EXPRESSION OF THE CREATIVE ENERGY OF EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION. Romantic thinkers, writers, artists, and composers were united in expressing their reaction against the ideas and principles of the enlightenment (reason and the perfectibility of human society) Importance of human values, individual, creativity, reverence for the past and human emotions, feeling and sentiments. The Romantic period and the culture of the middle ages (the age of faith) which stood in contrast to the age of reason of the enlightenment. Sturm und Drang (storm and stress). Life is drama, idealism, and a intense struggle between good and evil. Dual Monarchy Austria – Hungary 1867 Ausgleich = Compromise which created the Dual Monarchy between Austria and Hungary Austria and Hungary were united in the person of the Emperor who was always to be a Catholic and an HABSBURG and who was to be crowned King of Hungary in a special ceremony in Budapest. The Emperor reserved the right to appoint the ministers of foreign affairs, military affairs, and finace. A custom union united them. The Union was going to be renewed every 10 years. The emperor was Francis Joseph and he appointed cabinet members, bishops, civil servants, professirs and other officials. THE DUAL MONARCHY WAS UNIQUE IN EUROPE. Reaction to it: Christian Socialism, Pan-Germanism, and Social Democrats = Los Vom Rom = Away From Rome. Russia 1825 – 1917 Nicolas I = 1825 – 1855 Alexander II = 1855 – 1881 Alexander III = 1881 – 1894 Nicholas = 1894 – 1917 the last tsar Autocracy, Orthodoxy, Nationalism Alexander II = Emancipation Law of 1861 Westerners and Slovophiles Western Europe was urban and bourgeois Materialistic and democratic and constitutional Russia was rural and agrarian Deeply spiritual and gave importance to their national religion Russia was traditional, anti-democratic and anti-constitutional Populism Nihilism Anarchism